The Pain of Living in the Shackles of Slavery and Concubinage
The story of Catharina van Bengalen's life as a mortgagee and concubine illustrates how slavery and concubinage snares.
SLAVERY was commonplace in colonial society during the VOC era. Her presence is needed to do household tasks, such as being a waitress, lighting worker, washerwoman, tailor to cook. Not a few slaves were also employed by the company to dig canals, build roads, erect new buildings, and become iron and woodworkers under the supervision of carpentry experts from Europe in the workshops at the Batavia castle.
The importance of the role of slaves was not only seen from their work, but slaves were also a measure of a person's wealth, especially the European population. Historian Susan Blackburn in Jakarta: 400 Years of History said that most of the slaves belonging to Europeans were generally used as accompaniments to show off wealth. "The very richest people could own a hundred slaves or more," said Susan.
Slaves with special skills such as tending horses, mowing grass and tending crops were generally valued more highly,” wrote Dukut. "Meanwhile, women, apart from their appearance, can be highly valued if they have expertise in cooking or sewing."
Despite having an important role in people's lives, the lives of slaves were inversely proportional to those of their owners. Historian Jean Gelman Taylor in Social Life in Batavia: Europeans and Eurasians in the East Indies wrote that most slaves died as slaves, were malnourished, had no proper shelter and lacked clothing.
They also often receive severe punishment for violating the rules or fighting their employers. Only a few slaves were given extra wages on top of their food rations, and the few who had a salary were able to buy their freedom. Even so, some were released because of the mercy of their owners.
“Free slaves are under the rule of the government just like free citizens. They need permission to stay, marry and have an obligation to join a civilian militia,” Taylor wrote.
However, the condition of European society which was dominated by male immigrants raised hopes for a better life for a number of female slaves. In the early years of Dutch settlement, for some Asian women, the change from slave to mistress of the house was swift. This hope did not completely disappear, although in the following years European men preferred to marry Eurasian women or European women in their home countries, who then sailed to the colonies to live with their husbands.
Unfortunately, according to Hendrik E. Niemeijer in Batavia: Colonial Society of the XVII Century , life as a mortgagee and concubine rarely provided long-term security. “Often such a life is full of surprises and changeable circumstances,” writes Niemeijer.
Cadets "Sakti" from Timor
In a close combat, the East Timorese officer was not shot by a Dutch patrol. Considered sacred.
Julius Henuhili is one of the few sons from Rote Island who has had a successful career in the Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI). With the last rank of lieutenant general, Julius has certainly received various assignments and held various positions from the lowest to the highest military commander.
His career started after the Dutch army left the Motherland in 1950. As an anti-air attack artillery (ARSU) officer, Julius was entrusted with being the commander of the ARSU battalion from 1952 to 1954. From there his assignment shifted to SUAD and then the High Operations Command (KOTI). According to Harsya Bachtiar in Who Is a High Officer of the Indonesian National Armed Forces , from 1962 to 1965 Julius was entrusted with being the head of the Air Defense Command Staff in the Army.
Julius' highest position in the land dimension is commander of the Merdeka Military Command in North Sulawesi. He occupied this position from December 1971 to January 1974. Julius was then assigned to become the Commander General of the Indonesian Armed Forces Academy (Akabri) from December 1980 to June 1983. This position was his last position in military service. After that, he "followed" General M. Jusuf for five years who was asked to lead the Supreme Audit Agency (BPK) after retiring from ABRI.
Julius' long military career was certainly not built in a year or two. He has built the foundation since he was young during the War of Independence. It was during the time of the national revolution that Julius entered the Yogyakarta Military Academy (AMY). He managed to graduate in 1948 as the first generation.
Cadets "Sakti" from Timor
Fulfilling the Sacred Call
Every Muslim hopes to perfect his Islam by means of happening a pilgrimage to Mecca. This is the history of Indonesian Muslims going to the Holy Land.
ALLAH has ordained that the holy area of Mecca could be visited with the aid of waves of people who will in no way subside. There, there's the Kaaba that is the route for Muslim prayers. Therefore, each Muslim wishes with a purpose to carry out the 5th pillar of Islam (pilgrimage) to Mecca. Indonesian Muslims aren't any exception.
The practice of pilgrimage via Indonesian Muslims has been recorded because the sixteenth century. The spirit of pilgrimage endured to boom in the course of the Dutch colonial period, although it changed into restricted by using numerous guidelines. Their passionate enthusiasm makes them do some thing: some shop for years, mortgage their possessions, to work in Singapore to repay debts to be able to satisfy God's call.
Their sacrifice did no longer give up there. The adventure to Mecca by means of boat took a long time, wherein the ferocity of the waves could have sunk the deliver. When switching to the plane, an twist of fate in no way passed off. However, all of that could be a take a look at and dying in the way of Allah is the goal. So, do not be amazed if many pilgrims from Indonesia are antique and antique: final their lives with pilgrimage.*
The following is a unique document on the history of the Indonesian Muslim pilgrimage.
Dutch Colonial Period Hajj Exam
Fulfilling the Sacred Call
Snouck Hurgronje's Two Sides
Snouck Hurgronje is better known as a controversial figure than as an academic and scientist.
MOST Indonesians view Snouck Hurgronje as a controversial figure. Snouck's role in trying to extinguish the resistance of the Acehnese people made him considered an antagonist in the Aceh War (1873–1914).
On the other hand, the man who was born on February 8, 1857 was also known as a respected academic and orientalist. Wim van den Doel, author of the book Snouck: Biography of a Scientist Christian Snouck Hurgronje said that not a few people saw Snouck as a progressive thinker.
MOST Indonesians view Snouck Hurgronje as a controversial figure. Snouck's role in trying to extinguish the resistance of the Acehnese people made him considered an antagonist in the Aceh War (1873–1914).
On the other hand, the man who was born on February 8, 1857 was also known as a respected academic and orientalist. Wim van den Doel, author of the book Snouck: Biography of a Scientist Christian Snouck Hurgronje said that not a few people saw Snouck as a progressive thinker.
The discussion on the two sides of Snouck Hurgronje became the main theme in the book launch, mini symposium and photo exhibition titled "Admired and Despised: The Life and Works of Snouck Hurgronje" which was held at the National Library, Jakarta, Saturday (13/5/2022) . A photo exhibition featuring photos from the digital collection of the Leiden University Library, The Netherlands, will take place from 13 to 25 May 2023.
A number of figures attended as speakers at the event, including Jajat Burhanuddin, panelist from UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, Jajang A. Rohmana, panelist from UIN Sunan Gunung Jati Bandung, Bonnie Triyana, panelist and chief editor of Historia.ID, and Wim van den Doel , author of the book Snouck: A Biography of Scientist Christian Snouck Hurgronje .
According to Jajat Burhanuddin, the presence of Snouck's book: Biography of Scientist Christian Snouck Hurgronje not only enriches the Indonesian archipelago's historical literature in general, but can also become an additional reference for Dutch scientists who research Islam in the archipelago, especially Snouck Hurgronje.
"Apart from providing advice to the Dutch Colonial government, including intelligence briefings on military surprise attacks in Aceh, Snouck Hurgronje's career is also related to his understanding of Islam," said Jajat.
Jajat added, "Starting from his encounters with a number of Indonesian Muslims, Snouck continued his research by observing the ways in which Javanese clerics practiced Islamic teachings until they developed into an established system. Through these observations, the level of penetration of Islam in the lives of Muslims can be measured."
Meanwhile, Jajang revealed that Snouck Hurgronje received assistance from a number of people in conducting research related to Islam in the archipelago. One of them is Haji Hasan Mustapa who is known as a famous scholar and poet in the land of Pasundan.
“Snouck and Hasan Mustapa first met in Mecca. Communication between the two continued after Snouck lived in the Dutch East Indies," said Jajang.
Hasan Mustapa was not just a brainstorming partner for Snouck. His ability to write and read Arabic script made him an important informant for Snouck and the Dutch colonial government. He also served as head of the chief princes in Kutaraja (1893–1895) and Bandung (1895–1917).
Wim van den Doel said that Snouck Hurgronje's discussion was not only about his role as an aide to the Dutch colonial government in quelling the resistance of the Acehnese people, which then made Snouck's figure often considered controversial because of his connection with colonialism in the past.
"Apart from his role as a state official who was sent to the colony, one of the reasons for research on Islam that Snouck studied was out of curiosity as a scientist and academic," said Van den Doel.
Meanwhile, Bonnie Triyana said that the interesting thing related to the discussion on Snouck Hurgronje is how today's society, especially the Indonesian people, see the figure of Snouck. He said that in a poll on social media, most of the public saw Snouck Hurgronje as a Dutch colonial spy, in addition to several others seeing Snouck as an academic and figure who played a role in reducing the resistance of the Acehnese people.
"Our need to see Snouck today may be different from several decades which were colored and influenced by very nationalistic and patriotic historiographical traditions, so that we often forget that in certain cases there are areas that we really need to explore in more detail," said Bonnie.
Bonnie emphasizes the importance of viewing history contextually as an effort to minimize views that generalize certain figures in history. "And what is more important is how to share this knowledge with the public so that the stigma does not continue," said Bonnie.
In line with Bonnie, Jajang also revealed that reading history needs to be done chronologically. "Don't jump, don't position figures in the past with our point of view in the present," said Jajang. "Because our perspective in the present is different from the past."
In this regard, Jajang said that Snouck's book: Scientist Biography Christian Snouck Hurgronje contributed to describing Snouck Hurgronje's complex life.*
Snouck Hurgronje's Two Sides
Dutch Colonial Period Hajj Exam
Those returning from the pilgrimage are required to take exams. Those who pass the exam are allowed to wear the title and hajj dress.
Pilgrims from various regions in Indonesia have departed for Mecca to perform the pilgrimage. The departure of the pilgrims this year was divided into two waves. The first batch ends on 16 June 2023, while the second batch starts from 7 to 22 June 2023.
The pilgrimage has been a dream for Muslims in the archipelago since ancient times. M. Dien Majid wrote in Hajj in the Colonial Period, at the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries, pilgrims from various regions in the archipelago made up more than 40 percent of all pilgrims from various countries in the world. The great interest of Indonesian Muslims in performing the pilgrimage became the focus of the attention of the Dutch colonial government, which was worried that it could disrupt their status quo as rulers in their colonial territories.
Therefore, the colonial government drew up a number of regulations related to the implementation of the pilgrimage. Kees van Dijk in "Sarong, Cloak, and Pants: Appearance as a Means of Discrimination and Discrimination", contained in Outward Appearances compiled by Henk Schulte Nordholt and M. Imam Aziz, said that in the mid-19th century the Dutch had considered the possibility of banning the use of the title of Hajj and prevent those who have traveled to the Holy Land from wearing special garments, which are described as the “Mohammedan costume and turban”.
Dutch Colonial Period Hajj Exam
However, the Indian Consul decided otherwise. “Unable to forbid hajjis from wearing their Arabic titles and attire, the colonial administration developed laws to ensure at least that all those who called themselves hajjis (and who dressed in such fashion) had indeed traveled to the Holy Land,” wrote Van Dijk. As such, Muslims cannot "call themselves the name of the hadji and adopt his costume without ever setting foot in the Holy Land".
Based on the regulations contained in the Staatsblad voor Nederlandsch-Indie 1859 number 42, people who return from the pilgrimage must take a kind of test held by the regent or regional head with equal status, and be assisted by one or more hajjis who have a good reputation. to find out if these people really went to Mecca. If these people pass the test, they will receive a certificate and be allowed to dress like a pilgrim.
Meanwhile, according to Dien Majid, if a person who takes the exam cannot prove that he has actually performed the pilgrimage in the Holy Land, then he is not entitled to receive a certificate and is not permitted to dress like a pilgrim. Not only that, the person is also threatened with fines ranging from f.25 to f. 100 for each violation.
Regulations related to the implementation of the pilgrimage compiled by the colonial government not only regulated the examination of the pilgrimage, but also required people who had just returned from the Holy Land to report to the local authorities when they first arrived to get a pass sign, which was valid for the next trip to the chosen place. In order to make this policy known to the public, the regulations contained in the Staatsblad voor Nederlandsch-Indie 1859 number 42 were translated into Malay and Chinese.
Over time, the regulations related to the implementation of the Hajj, including the obligation to take the Hajj exam, have drawn attention from a number of parties, one of which is Snouck Hurgronje. According to E. Gobée and C. Adriaanse in C. Snouck Hurgronje's Advice During his Service to the Dutch East Indies Government 1889–1936, Snouck expressed his criticism of the Hajj regulations drawn up by the colonial government in 1859 to the governor general. He considered that the examination and awarding of haj diplomas were unnecessary, moreover every haj exam could be passed with good results by a non-hajjan, while a hajj who was rather stupid would only pass with difficulty.
In addition, Snouck also said that the habit of using Hajj clothes by people who have not performed the pilgrimage is not a crime. “Firstly, Hajj clothing is very difficult to define; and upon analysis, there was nothing left but his turban. However, this headgear has been worn since ancient times, apart from the hajjis, by native officials in the two religious holidays, and also by many of the princes who are still functioning, even though they are not hajjis. The turban is also worn by Hadramaut Arabs, most of whom have not yet performed the pilgrimage," he said. Therefore, Snouck believes that the wearing of "Arab head covering" is sometimes seen by the local community as part of a custom.
Regarding the use of the title hajj, Wim van den Doel in Snouck: Biography of a Scientist Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje writes that the Dutch scientist and orientalist thought that it was the colonial government that unknowingly gave the honorary stamp to the title hajj. According to Snouck, the title's value of the word hajj was largely due to false fears on the part of the colonialists that the government protected the title and defended its misuse. Thus, Snouck not only pushed for the abolition of the hajj examination policy, he also concluded that placing the hajj title and attire outside the law was the only rational step that could be taken by the colonial government until the policy was abolished in 1902.*
ALAMSYAH ARAFI Agustus 06, 2023 Admin Bandung Indonesia